Jude The Obscure Essays - Jude The Obscure, Jude, Thomas Hardy

Jude The Obscure In life the job of a man has changed little in contrast with how much the job of a ladies has changed. In Jude the Obscure the you pioneer a wide variaty of applied feminen personalities. With exagerated properties of the applicaitons, it shows the genuine rang of assorted variety in the job of ladies. Arabella was a radical character in the noval, and a significant number of her activities were viewed as extraordinary for her time. She left Jude while in wedlock and was wrongfully hitched to another man before she was appropriately separated from Jude. She assumed the job of the renegade, or on the other hand one against social laws. Arabella was an image of wrongdoing, and demonstrated to be as the unfit lady. The lady sort of lady to be looked down on. The author shows he pessimism toward her by the manner in which she is constantly demonstrated troubled. She was troubled with jude so she left him. She found another man however there marriage was never lawful or genuine, and as the book advanced she saw that she truly needed as with Jude, who not, at this point needed her for what she did to him. Thomas Hardy, the creator, was attempting to show that her agitator beliefs weren't right and for her transgressions she was rebuffed with suffering misery. Sue then again was on the other end of the range. Sue was odd, and she even see herself as strange what's more, underhanded, yet spoke to a lady of excellence and respect. She was a very inteligent lady, and extremely honorable. She spoke to a lady of class and height. She was particularly wanted by other men more for her multifaceted nature then whatever else. She was a mistery to men and it produced a wild enthusiasm for them. The most fascinating reality being she would not let her virginty go. Men were left confused what's more, confounded. She did anyway have her negative viewpoints to her character. She hitched a man, and afterward asked to him to live with another. Something to that effect isn't regarded. She utilized the man she wedded for childish reasons, which further clarifies the another point Hardy was attempting to make through Sue. He was making the point, ladies have a control over men, the intensity of enchantment, and is regularly miss utilized for narrow minded reasons. Nobody can stero type a lady due to the outrageous differentiation in conduct, and Hardy showed this reality unmistakably in this noval. Solid took to lady, and gave both of you parts of ladies' inclination that unmistakably demonstrate the decent variety of lady themselves.

Slavery in Brazil

Edmund Burke, the acclaimed creator and savant once stated, â€Å"Slavery is a weed that develops on each dirt. † Between the sixteenth and nineteenth century in the Americas, millions on a great many slaves were brought to the New World. There intention was to work. The economy of most European states in America was reliant on slaves. The land that was found in Americas was futile with out adequate slave work to abuse it. In this exposition, I will concentrate on two countries where bondage assumed a tremendous job in the improvement of that nation. To start with, The United States, where in 1860 in South Carolina more than 50 percent of the populace were slaves.Next, Brazil, the country where around 33% of all balms from Africa were brought. In this article I will contrast servitude in The United States with subjugation in Brazil, I will analyze the similitudes and contrasts while concentrating on why and how the slaves came, the segment and strict perspectives, the treatmen t of the slaves, and the outcome on the two nations because of bondage. Around the year 1530 the Portuguese came to Brazil looking for land and common assets, explicitly sugar. As the Portuguese and the indigenous individuals of Brazil struggled for land, the Brazilians opposed against being enslaved.As the Portuguese nearness developed in Brazil did as well illness, causing the demise of the greater part of the working indigenous individuals. As the quantity of sugar manors developed, the interest for laborers did too. This is the principle motivation behind why Brazil started to import slaves from Africa. In spite of the fact that the birthplace of slaves in The United States was like Brazil, there were a few contrasts. In the year 1619, just around 10 years after the British started to colonize US, a Dutch slave dealer traded around 20 Africans for food in Jamestown, Virginia. Like Brazil, the U. S required specialists for manors, yet while Brazil concentrated on the sugar estate s, the U.S was centered around the tobacco ranches. By and large, both Brazil and the U. S did not have a significant asset so as to keep up a solid economy, that asset being laborers. Despite the fact that Brazil utilized more slaves towards sugar and the U. S utilized more towards tobacco, as a rule the slaves worked in mines or they worked in a sugar, rice, tobacco, or cotton manor. Despite the fact that the U. S assumed a bigger job simultaneously, both Brazil and the U. S took an interest in the Triangular Slave Trade. Some state the Triangular Slave Trade is the motivation behind why 10 to 15 million of Africans were sent to the Americas somewhere in the range of 1650 and 1860.The slave exchange was basic yet wrong on such a significant number of levels. The slave exchange took a few distinct courses, however there were two well known ones. The most well-known course would initially begin in Europe where the Europeans would exchange fabricated products for slaves Africa. Next, the slaves were shipped over the Atlantic Ocean to Brazil and the Caribbean where the slaves were sold for colossal benefits or exchanged for sugar, espresso, and tobacco. The excursion from Africa to the Americas was known as the center entry. Olaudah Equiano was a slave caught and sold into slavery.In his book, The Life of Olaudah Equiano the African, while portraying the center entry he composes, â€Å"I was before long put down under the decks, and there I got such a welcome in my noses as I had never experienced in my life; I turned out to be so debilitated and low that I couldn't eat. I presently wanted for the last companion, demise, to assuage me; however soon, to my sorrow, two of the white men offered me eatables; and, on my declining to eat, one of them held me quick by the hands, and laid me over, The white individuals looked and acted, as I thought, in so savage a way; for I had never observed among my kin such occasions of severe cruelty.The closeness of the spot, an d the warmth of the atmosphere, nearly choked out us. The air before long got unfit for breath, from an assortment of detestable scents, and welcomed on a disorder among the slaves, of which numerous kicked the bucket. The screams of the ladies, and the moans of the perishing, rendered the entire a scene of ghastliness practically incomprehensible. As should be obvious, the conditions were fierce without a doubt. Another well known triangular course taken was ships from the U. S settlements would take rum and different items to Africa in return for Slaves.From there, the slaves were taken to Brazil and the Caribbean and sold for benefit or sold for sugar and molasses to reclaim to the U. S where then the sugar and molasses was offered to rum creators. By and large, the slave exchange was horrendous and obtuse, in any case, the explanation the U. S and Brazil had the option to keep up a consistent economy. Despite the fact that there were numerous similitudes between the Brazilian sl aves and the U. S slaves, there were many explicit contrasts also. Perhaps the biggest distinction in servitude among Brazil and the U. S was demographic.Generally, the Brazilian slaves were normally diminishing while the U. S slaves were typically expanding. This is because of a few reasons. To start with, the Brazilians had a much lower extent of female slaves contrasted with the U. S who had an equivalent sex proportion. In Brazil, because of the absence of female slaves, they had a much lower birth rate then the U. S did. Both the demise rate and self destruction rate was likewise higher in Brazil contrasted with the U. S. Because of the low birthrate and the high demise rate, Brazil experienced difficulty to keep up a populace bringing about having to constantly import slaves.On the other hand, the normal number of youngsters destined to a mid nineteenth century U. S slave lady was 9. 2; this is twice the same number of as Brazil and the Caribbean. Every one of these reasons ar e the reason Brazil had an a lot bigger number of late appearances from Africa while the U. S had a predominately American slave conceived populace. Additionally, this is the reason out of the a huge number of Africans who were brought to the New World, more than 33% arrived in Brazil and somewhere in the range of 60 and 70 percent wound up in Brazil or the sugar provinces of the Caribbean.According to Henry John Temple, the notable British Prime Minister of the nineteenth century, he proposes that there were around 3,000,000 slaves in Brazil in the nineteenth century. Despite the fact that it is difficult to know the specific number, most students of history concur that it was around 3,000,000, which would be around 40% of the entire populace. On the opposite side, in 1860, the slaves in the U. S were just around 13 percent of the whole populace. For the most part talking, in Brazil slaves took a shot at a lot bigger ranches then in the U. S.Most Brazilian ranches held around 150 s laves for each estate. In the U. S, it was very unique. As per Carl Deglar, who composed, Slavery in Brazil and the United States, he states, â€Å"Out of the considerable number of ranches in the U. S, more the a large portion of the slaves took a shot at units with 20 slaves or less. † In the U. S it would not be extraordinary for the captives to manage their proprietors regularly, while in Brazil some took a shot at ranches with hundreds and several different slaves where it is uncommon to experience your proprietor. When looking at Brazil and the U.S today, the segment contrasts during the times of subjection is one of the primary reasons why the two nations are so unique One may believe that since the slaves were brought to the U. S and Brazil for comparative reasons then they all were dealt with the equivalent, had similar rights, and were seen the equivalent. Despite the fact that this is in no way, shape or form altogether bogus, there are a couple of explicit contras ts on how the slaves were treated in the US contrasted with how the slaves were treated in Brazil. Religion among the slaves was fundamental for a few while non-existent for other people. In the U.S, religion was debilitated for the slaves. The normal white American slave proprietor thought there was no compelling reason to ever have a slave practice a religion. This could be because of the way that no place in the Catholic Christian lessons does it say it’s satisfactory to subjugate and regard a kindred Christian as the proprietors were treating their slaves. In 1831, Virginia passed a law expressing, â€Å"Slaves and free Negroes were prohibited to lecture, urge or instruct in any petition meeting or other relationship for love where captives of various families are gathered together on punishment of not more than thirty-nine lashes. In Brazil, the Christianity of a slave was seen very unique. Some slave proprietors even saw it as a fundamental for a captive to take a shot at his homestead. Now and again the slaves would even need to play out a strict custom even before they ventured foot in Brazil. Rather than being seen as complete property, the slaves in Brazil were allowed to rehearse a religion, specifically, practice the lessons of the Catholic Church. The slaves that left from Angola, Africa to Brazil were sanctified through water before they jumped aboard the ship.When they showed up in Brazil, the slaves were recognized as submersed and needed to start learning the supplications, principles, and elements of the Church. In Brazil, marriage was really satisfactory and substantial. In 1711, the Constituicoes Primeiras of the Archbishopric of Bahia reaffirmed the authenticity of relationships among slaves, and between free people and slaves. As indicated by the Constituicoes, bosses couldn't keep their slaves from wedding, nor might they be able to isolate them once they had marry. Despite the fact that this may sound promising, it sounds better then it really was.Most slave proprietors didn't maintain the law that you were unable to isolate a hitched slave. When all is said in done, they despite everything saw them more as property at that point individuals. As per Fernando Henrique Cardoso, the previous leader of Brazil, he states, â€Å"Of the 660,000 slaves in all of Brazil in 1875, who were 14 years or more seasoned, just around 1 out of 6 was recorded as hitched or bereft. † as far as religion, the facts confirm that the Brazilian slaves had more rights then the U. S slaves, however not by much. As should be obvious both the U.S and Brazilian slave proprietors were increasingly decided on making benefit by making the slaves arduously work then whatever else. Althou

Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Written by Herself by Harriet Essay

Episodes in the Life of a Slave Girl, Written without anyone else by Harriet Jacobs - Essay Example To assist us with getting this, we will handle three themes; how subjugation is more harming to ladies than men, life in the North after the break of Jacobs and how bondage sabotaged families in the south. Q1 Harriet Jacobs composed a story about existence as slave and the difficulties that she needed to understanding. The story uncovered the real and psychological mistreatments a female needs to suffer when she is a slave. The story shows how ladies experienced horrible and damaging severity of bondage than their male partners. Jacobs like numerous other slave ladies were explicitly bugged by their white experts. As indicated by the story, Jacobs was explicitly prodded and controlled by Mr. Stone her lord. Dr. Rock would for the most part advise her that she was her property and that he could also do anything he desired with her. This made Jacob’s life to be awkward and dreadful. Dr. Rock would meet Jacobs every step of the way, and advise her that she had a place with him, a nd depend on paradise and earth that one day, she will cause her to consent to her headways. The circumstance was damaging to the point that Jacobs could hear Dr. Flint’s strides when she was unwinding in the wake of a monotonous day of work. At whatever point Jacobs would visit her mother’s grave, she would see a dim shadow of Dr. Rock following her. Life was so terrible for slave ladies that sexual abuse was a day by day undertaking for them. Jacob and other female slaves were mentally mishandled and puzzled. They were exposed to damaging conventions that were believed to be socially right. For example, for a female slave to be esteemed a woman in the south, there were brutal conditions that they needed to stand. This caused Jacobs to be spooky by the loss of her blamelessness when she was a child. White females were required to keep themselves unadulterated, and their homes were ensured by the law and they had the opportunity of picking their accomplices. Female sla ves on correspondingly, had no freedom to choose their accomplices, and it was difficult for them to protect themselves or to keep themselves unadulterated. Females were made to live despondently. Female slaves needed to persevere through the hardships of parenthood in cruel conditions. Parenthood set an alternate encounter of ladies slaves from their male partners. Female slaves were exposed to a difficult circumstance whereby they are compelled to organize their exercises Jacobs needed to organize between being a slave and being a mother worried about the government assistance of her youngsters. After Jacobs had discovered that Dr. Stone needed to make her and her kids slaves, she faced the challenge of running away to spare the predetermination of her kids, in spite of knowing the results that would happen to her in the event that she was gotten. Jacobs took a chance with her body and mind and lived in complete withdrawal all together for her kids to be free. Female slaves were a ccountable for their families more than the slave fathers. The job of slave fathers was very little huge as they were sold a long way from their families. Q3 Though the north is viewed as not supporting subjugation, segregation is extremely uncontrolled. Whites and fair looking blacks are dealt with uniquely in contrast to the blacks. Dark ladies shouldn't blend in with the whites in the North. Jacobs recalls a circumstance when she was the main dark house cleaner in a lodging and was unjustifiably treated. She was demonstrated a seat in the inn where she plunked down, just for the server to come and advise her to sit the child in the seat and to remain behind it on her feet. Jacob was advised to hold on to be demonstrated where she was to take her dinner from, which ended up being the

Annotated Bibliography on Community Psychology Journals - 1650 Words

Annotated Bibliography on Community Psychology Journals (Annotated Bibliography Sample) Content: Annotated Bibliography on Community Psychology JournalsStudents NameInstitutional AffiliationDateKupersmidt, J. B., Stump, K. N., Stelter, R. L. and Rhodes, J. E. (2017), Predictors of Premature Match Closure in Youth Mentoring Relationships. Am J Community Psychol, 59: 2535. doi:10.1002/ajcp.12124The rate by which premature relationships closure happen is alarming. The authors give special scrutiny to examine the predictors and high rate of premature match closure. Throughout the article, relevance examples are given and sources of data cited for clarity of information. The authors collect and select various institutions and participants who they feel fit for the study. The inclusion of real-life experience and psychological professionalism makes the study a reliable source for handling the premature match closure cases.The use of Longitudinal study in the article gives a progression of activities recorded from time to time with the cohort effects recorded accordingl y. The article uses three major factors which they then define in details for clarity. The predictors they use for the study include mentee characteristics, mentor characteristics and the length of the match. All the three predictors give a dimensional look to the problem that it all lies on the participants of the relationship and duration of the relationship. Personal characteristics of the mentor, however, seem to have a considerable influence compared to the other two.According to the study, the premature relationship included of students and adults chosen explicitly to participate in the program. Usually, there are natural factors that spark a relationship. All this seem to be underlooked, and the artificial choice of the match may, however, be a part of the problem of premature closure in youth mentoring problem. The study fails to depict additional effort made by the mentor to rematch the relationship. Although the Short period of school time was listed as a predictor, the re searchers assumed that premature closure of relationships occurs while only in school.According to the study, 34% of premature early match closure occurred. The statistics appear to be correct from the inclusion of 8953 participants data collected from MentorPro national database in 18 states. However, the data collection happened only on educational institutions factoring out local youth, refugee camps, and other juvenile systems. The accuracy of the statistics seems real as the number of the participant who took part in the program were 6965 mentors and 6468 mentees, which is a good number for a sample.The demographic composition of female and male is 64% and 46% respectively indicating inclusion of both genders in the survey. The results from such a survey, therefore, can be relied on to display an accurate reflection of full representation of participants. The research indicates a 38% of overall prevalence of premature closure, which in comparison with other research conducted on this topic, gives a reasonable estimate. This means that the authors were keen on data collection and calculation to give verifiable and accurate readings. The overall Demographic characteristics, sex, race, ethnicity, and age of mentors and mentees are documented hence provides a more reliable approach to the report.The study, however, seems to be biased by learning more about mentee characteristics and ignoring mentor characteristics and their level of input. The mentor influence may make the mentee to have a negative perception of the relationship ending in a premature match closure. This, however, is overlooked and emphasizes given more on mentees.Holland, K. J., and Cortina, L. M. (2017), It Happen to Girls All the Time: Examining Sexual Assault Survivors Reasons for Not Using Campus Supports. Am J Community Psychol, 59: 5064. doi:10.1002/ajcp.12126Even though there is the availability of formal support for sexual assault survivors in college, very few utilize them. The stud y seeks to examine reasons for failing to seek formal support and why they Neglect the use of formal support. From the continued push from various agencies, colleges have concentrated in the provision of resources that would benefit sexual survivors. However, even though colleges have done their part in ensuring that all necessary resources are available, students fail to seek assistance from the resources. The study gives precise directions on what makes the students not use the resources and how institutions should handle the reasons to ensure they register a bigger margin of students who seek help in the designated support resources.The study indicates that at least 15% to 20% of women in colleges get raped or assaulted sexually. Of the 20%, only 2% to 11% report rape cases and attempts giving a 4% to 9% bearing the hard times on their own for the reasons the study seeks to reveal. The study seeks to qualitatively explain why the deviation between survivors rate and those seeking help is high and what should be done to convert or reduce the rate. The study relies on data from resident assistants and women from a large western university. The selected campus has a large population, and hence the sample size is considerable.The study doesnt have a particular conceptualized theory for the reasons but utilizes mixed methodological approaches on to determine why the students didnt seek support from relevant departments namely the sexual assault center, grievances and security office, and support staff. The study utilized such approaches as identifying the problem, deciding to seek help, and choice of assistance required to elaborate the process through which participants go through until they decide whether or not to visit the support center. This gives a broader view of where the reasons emanate and form a solid base in understanding why they occur in the first place.The study revealed various reasons such as availability of the student, affordability of the he lp services, accessibility of the resources, and acceptability after visiting the help resource. Also, the study digs deep and reflects on other factors such as contextual characteristics of the individual. The study illustrates this by giving an example of a student who was raped while drunk. The quagmire of being suspended or getting help makes one choose the latter. The students also gave the probability of seeking help not being beneficial as a reason for not visiting the formal support centers.The study utilizes the qualitative method of data collection for a Contextual understanding of the problem rather than getting numbers only. The survey used detailed information and sought to understand the initial thoughts although they asked very personal questions that would trigger trauma. The authors have a clear explanation of how they arrived at 6.5% of the total 284 women who got formal support. The study uses women only hence it is gender biased. Also, only white women participat ed in the study and only students in 3 well-resourced campuses compared to hundreds of colleges available in the country.DeLoveh, H. L. M., and Cattaneo, L. B. (2017), Deciding Where to Turn: A Qualitative Investigation of College Students Help-seeking Decisions After Sexual Assault. Am J Community Psychol, 59: 6579. doi:10.1002/ajcp.12125Although institutions have committed to providing sexual assault assistance resources, underutilization of the resources is evident. The study seeks to qualitatively investigate this effect basing it on the help-seeking decisions on an individual level. Making a decision affects one's next move, if one should visit an assistance resource but then decides not to visit; it becomes a personal issue only known by the individual. However, looking at all the assaul...

Displacement Effect And Economic Growth In The Uk Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 20 Words: 5914 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? In this chapter of the research, will discuss the assumption made by both the Peacock and Wiseman (1961) displacement hypothesis to explain the increases in the proportion of time government expenditure to economic growth in the United Kingdom. They found that government expenditure in the United Kingdom did not follow a smooth trend, but instead, it seems to jump up in separate times. Peacock and Wiseman (1961) proposed the displacement effect hypothesis. It had related to the Wagners law even though there are a few differences between them. Thus, they contend that under normal conditions of peace and economic stability, changes in public expenditure are quite limited. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Displacement Effect And Economic Growth In The Uk Finance Essay" essay for you Create order The effect of the public expenditure on the time pattern of the general government expenditure is that public sector size will tend to be constant over time, rather than increasing, unless same major crisis periods occur, which require an increase in government intervention. The equivalent expansion of the public sector will not be just temporary, since the new levels of government expenditure and taxation will be accepted by the electors, and therefore public sector size will remain stable at an higher level until the next shock. The data used in this study is the time series Quarterly data for two periods of (1980q1 to 1990q2), and (1990q3 to 2007q4), have utilized to analyze the relationship between government expenditures and economic growth by measuring the gross domestic product in the Saudi economy. The rest of the chapter is organizing as following: section one, presents some empirical results of relevant theoretical and empirical literature on the relationship between government expenditure and economic growth. Section tow, presents the version of Peacock and Wiseman and their formula to explain the Displacement Effect. Section three, investigates the data and empirical results and analysis by using the methods. In addition, Section four, presents the results of analysis by using the time series techniques , such as the Ordinary Least Square (OLS), Augmented Dickey-Fuller for stationary Unit Root Tests, co-integration test , Causality Granger test , and Error Correction Model (ECM) , that for real GDP and Non-Oil GDP . While section five, concludes the chapters and presents. 9.2. The Displacement Effect Hypothesis 9.2.1. Structural Break Theory As we mentioned before in chapter three, wars are capable of displacing this notion of tolerable tax rates. In addition, expenditure may fall again, but not to their previous levels. Therefore, public expenditure grows in a discontinuous and stepwise fashion, the steps coming at times of major social upheavals (Safa, 1998). According to, Tussing and Henning (1991:397) the upward displacement effect by Peacock and Wiseman is an example, but obviously not the only one of such a structural change. Nelson and Plosser (1982) examined the relationship between the unable to reject the null of a unit root against trend stationary alternatives their data set. They found that impact on the way economic series have viewed and treated subsequently, which have further discussed by Perrons (1989). Zivot and Andrews (1992) pointed out the specification argued in favour of the need to view break points as endogenous and to develop procedures, which considered this endogenously. Diamond (1977) presented the displacement effect as a theory of structural break, which means that the usual ceteris paribus assumption of unchanged tastes, preferences and institutions after the upheaval has denied. He has used the Chow test comparing two periods separated by a social upheaval, and he found that, if this shows significant structural change and there has been displacement. 9.2.2. A Ratchet Effect As mentioned previously, the main argument of the ratchet effect is that if there a crisis and GNP decline, then the public expenditure decline but less than GNP. According to Bird (1972), he has explained the displacement effect and called it the ratchet effect. Moreover, Bird (1972) has argued that crises are likely to have short-term implications for (E / GNP) rather than crises lead to a permanent upward displacement for (E / GNP). Henrekson (1992) argued that the (E / GNP) is fall in the short run in times of unexpectedly rapid GNP growth. Other study for Peacock and Wiseman (1979) they argued that at the extreme, the ratchet effect interpretation of the displacement effect leads to the denial of its very existence. 9.3. Empirical Testing of Displacement Effect: Previous Studies Gupta (1967) was the first attempt to subject the displacement effect to empirical testing. He found significant displacement after the world wars in all cases except for Sweden after World War II. However, this result seems to be due to an estimation error, he also found significant displacement caused by the Great Depression in the case of the U.S. and Canada. According to, Henrekson (1990:246) Peacock and Wiseman (1961), adopt a clearly inductive approach to explaining the growth of government expenditure. When Peacock and Wiseman observed that expenditures over time appeared to outline a series of plateaus separated by peaks, and that these peaks coincided with periods of war and preparation for war they were led to expound the displacement effect hypothesis. Legrenzi (2003) argued that the displacement effect for Italy within a multivariate revenue-expenditure model of government growth. His result for long-run analysis shows an effect of GDP on the governments growth. Otherwise, the short-run analysis shows some evidence for the displacement effect, in terms of a lower resistance against tax financing of government expenditures in the war. The similar test of Guptas version in many ways is for Bonin, Finch and Waters (1969); they have tested displacement effect in the U.K. after the two world wars. In addition, Peacock and Wiseman investigated that both citizens and government hold divergent views about the desirable size of public expenditures and the possible level of government taxation. This divergence can adjust by social disturbances that destroy established conceptions and produce a displacement effect. People will accept, in a period of crisis, tax levels and methods of raising revenue that in quieter times would have though intolerable, and this acceptance remains when the disturbance itself has disappeared. As a result, the revenue and expenditure statistics of the government show a displacement after periods of social disturbance. Expenditures may fall when the disturbance is over, but they are less likely to return to the old level. The state may begin doing some of the things it might formerly have wanted to, but for which it had hitherto felt politically unable to raise the necessary revenues (Peacock and Wiseman 1961: 26). Other study for Henry and Olekalns (2000), investigated the Peacock and Wisemans displacement effect to explain the increases in the ratio of government expenditure to GDP in the United Kingdom. They used a data set extending back to 1836; they found instances where displacement may say to have occurred. 9.4. The formulating of the versions of Displacement Effect We tested the Displacement Effect by reversing the Peacock-Wiseman version of Wagners, which are with real GDP (9.1): Table 9.1: The original Version of Peacock-Wiseman with real GDP No Function Version Year 1 L(GE) = ÃÆ'Ã… ½Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ± + L(GDP) Peacock-Wiseman 1967 Moreover, we will use non-oil sector of Growth Domestic Product (GDP) table (9.2). Table 9.2: The Version of Peacock-Wiseman with real Non-Oil Sector of GDP No Function Version Year 1 L(GE) = ÃÆ'Ã… ½Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ± + L(Non-Oil GDP) + e Peacock-Wiseman 1967 9.5. The Econometric Methodology and Analysis 9.5.1. Ordinary least square test (OLS) The ordinary Least Square test (OLS), has used to estimate the coefficients in the equations. The Durbin-Watson statistic indicates the absence of the serial correlation among the residuals; the closer the DW statistic and better result are to (2). Test reflects the regression equations ability to determine the dependent variables performance. In contrast, the coefficients of the logarithm model have an interpretation, as elasticises. The logarithm transformation is applicable only when all the observations in the data set are positive. In contrast, the parameters of the logarithm model have an interpretation as elasticises. The logarithm transformation is applicable only when all the observations in the data set are positive. According to, Gujarati (1995), the normal regression model by taking logs of both sides of the equation: Y = ÃÆ'Ã… ½Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ± + X + e (9.1) To be: Log Y = ÃÆ'Ã… ½Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ± + Log X + e (9.2) The slope is: Slope = (9.3) The elasticity is: Elasticity = = (9.4) For simplification, E can write as: = (9.5) The normal equation of Peacock and Wiseman version is: GE = f (GDP) f 0 f (9.6) Where: GE = Total Government Expenditure level in real terms. GDP= Gross Domestic Product in real terms. GE = ÃÆ'Ã… ½Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ± + GDP + e (9.7) The equation by using logarithm model: L (GE) = ÃÆ'Ã… ½Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ± + L (GDP) + e (9.8) E (Peacock Wiseman) = (9.9) 9.5.1.1. Structural Break Chow Test with Real GDP To find out whether there is a structural break between two periods we divide the observations, we need to calculate the chow test, which is like a F- test, the test statistic from the following formula (9.10): (9.10) The hypotheses tests are: Source RSSc RSS1 RSS2 df Model 9.33377 0.123032 4.65830 1 Residual 0.7410185 0.0067273 0.4136198 110 By using the formula above we can conclude, F-test (1, 110) = 83.914, and the critical value from the F-Table (5%) = 3.92. We have found that since the test F test (1, 110) = 83.914 is greater than the critical F- table = 3.92, we can reject the null hypothesis that there is no structural break and instead accept the alternative hypothesis that there is structural break, It means we have a structural break in the data. Thus, we need to divide the data into tow sup-samples. In the case of Saudi Arabia, we can analysis the Peacock-Wiseman version as: 9.5.1.1.1. Ordinary Least Square (OLS) with Real GDP Peacock-Wiseman (1980Q1 TO 1990Q2) The Peacock and Wiseman version would present as following: L(GE)= 6.43204+ 0.3737 L(GDP) (9.11) (14.44) (8.58) The numbers between parentheses are (t- statistics) for each estimated parameter and intercept. In the equation (9.11), we will get elasticity value directly as (E=0.3737) 0, that means an increase of (99.63%) unit in Government Expenditure (GE) generates a (99.63%) unit increase Gross Domestic Products (GDP). Moreover, the Government Expenditure (GE) explains (65%) change in Gross Domestic Products (GDP) (table (9.3). Table 9.3: Regression results for Peacock Wiseman Version for (OLS) test from (1980Q1) to (1990Q2) with Real GDP Versions D-Variable Constant In-Variable Coefficient R ² Peacock Wiseman L(GE) 6.43204 L (GDP) 0.3737203 0.6480 Peacock-Wiseman (1990Q2 TO 2007Q4) The Peacock and Wiseman version would present as following: L(GE)= 0.554041+ 0.94752 L(GDP) (9.12) (1.51) (27.67) The numbers between parentheses are (t- statistics) for each estimated parameter and intercept. In the equation (9.12), we will get elasticity value directly as (E = 0.94752) 0 , that means an increase of (99.05%) unit in Government Expenditure (GE) Gross Domestic Products (GDP) generates a (99.05%) unit increase Gross Domestic Products (Non-Oil GDP). Moreover, the Government Expenditure (GE) explains (91.8%) change in Gross Domestic Products (GDP) (table 9.4). Table 9.4: Regression results for Peacock Wiseman Version for (OLS) test from (1990Q3) to (2007Q4) with Real GDP Versions D-Variable Constant In-Variable Coefficient R ² Peacock Wiseman L(GE) 0.554041 L (GDP) 0.9475297 0.918 9.5.1.2. Structural Break Chow Test with Real Non-Oil-GDP To find out whether there is a structural break between two periods we divide the observations, we need to calculate the chow test, which is like a F- test, the test statistic from the following formula: The hypotheses tests are: Source RSSc RSS1 RSS2 df Model 8.62851 0.0943032 4.040055 1 Residual 1.44628 0.096802 1.0318692 110 By using the formula above we can conclude, F-test (1, 110) = 30.953, and the critical value from the F-Table (5%) = 3.92. We have found that since the test F test (1, 110) = 30.953 is greater than the critical F- table = 3.92, we can reject the null hypothesis that there is no structural break and instead accept the alternative hypothesis that there is structural break, It means we have a structural break in the data. Thus, we need to divide the data into tow sup-samples. 9.5.1.2.1. Ordinary Least Square (OLS) with Real NON-OIL-GDP Peacock-Wiseman (1980Q1 TO 1990Q2) The Peacock and Wiseman version would present as following: L(GE)=6.664974+0.3234 L(Non-Oil GDP) (9.13) (11.59) (6.24) The numbers between parentheses are (t- statistics) for each estimated parameter and intercept. In the equation (9.13), we will get elasticity value directly as (E=0.3234) 0, that means an increase of (99.68%) unit in Government Expenditure (GE) generates a (99.68%) unit increase Gross Domestic Products (GDP). Moreover, the Government Expenditure (GE) explains (65%) change in Gross Domestic Products (GDP) (table (9.5). Table 9.5: Regression results for Peacock Wiseman Version for (OLS) test from (1980Q1) to (1990Q2) with Real Non-Oil GDP Versions D-Variable Constant In-Variable Coefficient R ² Peacock Wiseman L(GE) 6.664974 L (Non-Oil GDP) 0.32340 0.6480 Peacock-Wiseman (1990Q3 TO 2007Q4) The Peacock and Wiseman version would present as following: L(GE)= -0.568392+ 0.9721244 L(Non-Oil GDP) (9.14) (-0.82) (16.32) The numbers between parentheses are (t- statistics) for each estimated parameter and intercept. In the equation (9.14), we will get elasticity value directly as (E = 0.9721244) 0 , that means an increase of (99.03%) unit in Government Expenditure (GE) Gross Domestic Products (Non-Oil GDP) generates a (99.03%) unit increase Gross Domestic Products (Non-Oil GDP). Moreover, the Government Expenditure (GE) explains (79.7%) change in Gross Domestic Products (Non-Oil GDP) (table 9.6). Table 9.6: Regression results for Peacock Wiseman Version for (OLS) test from (1990Q3) to (2007Q4) with Real Non-Oil GDP Versions D-Variable Constant In-Variable Coefficient R ² Peacock Wiseman L(GE) -0.568392 L (Non-Oil GDP) 0.9721244 0.797 9.5.2. Unit Roots Test Unit Root test aims to examine the properties of time series quarterly data for each of the Government Expenditures (LGE), Gross Domestic Product (LGDP), during the period from (1980q1-1990q2) to (1990q3-2007q4). To test the stationary time series model for the study variables, it requires the unit root test (Enders: 1995). Despite the multiplicity of the unit root tests, but we will use Augmented Dickey-Fuller for stationary Unit Root Tests, through the following equation:   (9.15) Where: = the first difference of the series. is the series under consideration (GDP, government expenditures, or government revenues), t = the time trend. k= the number of lag. is a t is a stationary random error (white noise residual). The hypotheses tests are: If we fail to reject the , then we have a unit root process. On the other hand , if the outcome indicates that the series are stationary after the first difference , in other words , the series integrated of order one I(1) , then we have to proceed to perform a co-integration test. Augmented Dickey-Fuller for stationary Unit Root Tests have used to test for unit roots. If the null hypothesis that the variable contains a unit root cannot be rejected, In this section we have to test the Unit Root Tests for Peacock and Wiseman version for real GDP and Non Oil GDP during two periods, firstly from (1980q1) to (1990q2) and from (1990q3) to (2007q4). Table (9.7) presents the calculated t-value from Augmented Dickey-Fuller for stationary Unit Root Tests on each variable. Table 9.7: Augmented Dickey-Fuller for stationary Unit Root Tests for Real GDP and Non Oil GDP from (1980Q1) to (1990Q2) Variables Augmented Dickey-Fuller for stationary Unit Root Test Statistics L(GDP) -2.725 L(GE) -3.514 L(Non-Oil GDP) -3.426 Critical Values 1% level -2.431 Critical Values 5% level -1.687 Critical Values 10% level -1.305 For the period during (1980Q1 to 1990Q2), according to the result in table (9.7), while all variables under examination are time-series variables, we needed first to test the properties of the series. In order to avoid the problem of spurious regression, each series has tested for stationary. To do so, we apply Augmented Dickey-Fuller for stationary Unit Root Tests, considering 5% level of significance, for the unit root test whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis. However, we found the results of each variable used in Peacock Wiseman version in Saudi Arabia indicate that the series are non-stationary in level but stationary after the first difference. The number of observation is 41 for Saudi Arabia and the following table (9.7) summarize the results of the unit root test for Saudi Arabia. Based on these test it can concluded that all variables tested (LGDP, LGE, LNON OIL GDP) are contained a unit root insignificant level of 5% for Augmented Dickey-Fuller for stationary Unit Root Tests. These results are consistent with the standard theory, which assumes that most macroeconomic variables are not static level, but become stationary in first difference (Enders: 1995).The next step would be to test for co-integration by testing the residual from the co-integrating regression. Table 9.8: Augmented Dickey-Fuller for stationary Unit Root Tests for Real GDP and Non Oil GDP from (1990Q3) to (2007Q4) Variables Augmented Dickey-Fuller for stationary Unit Root Test Statistics L(GDP) -4.199 L(GE) -7.332 L(Non-Oil GDP) -6.301 Critical Values 1% level -4.110 Critical Values 5% level -3.482 Critical Values 10% level -3.169 On the other hand, for the period during (1990Q3 to 2007Q4), according to the result in table (9.8), while all variables under examination are time-series variables, we needed first to test the properties of the series. In order to avoid the problem of spurious regression, each series has tested for stationary. To do so, we apply Augmented Dickey-Fuller for stationary Unit Root Tests, considering 5% level of significance, for the unit root test whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis. However, we found the results of each variable used in Peacock Wiseman version in Saudi Arabia indicate that the series are non-stationary in level but stationary after the first difference. The number of observation is 69 for Saudi Arabia and the following table (9.8) summarize the results of the unit root test for Saudi Arabia. Based on these test it can concluded that all variables tested (LGDP, LGE, LNON OIL GDP) are contained a unit root insignificant level of 5% for Augmented Dickey-Fuller for stationary Unit Root Tests. These results are consistent with the standard theory, which assumes that most macroeconomic variables are not static level, but become stationary in first difference (Enders: 1995).The next step would be to test for co-integration by testing the residual from the co-integrating regression. 9.5.3. Co-integration Test In this section we have to test the Co-integration Test for Peacock and Wiseman version for real GDP and Non Oil GDP during two periods, firstly from (1980q1) to (1990q2) and from (1990q3) to (2007q4). As mentioned previously, the concept of integration common that if the level variables of the form are non-stationary any package of first class, if possible, to generate a linear combination of these variables is characterized by a static zero-class integrated I (0). It is in this case, the  integrated real-time variables of the same rank co-integrated, and thus it can use the level variables in the regression, nor is the decline in this case a false spurious, (Rau, 1994). The null hypothesis is that the variables under investigation are not co-integrated. The rejection of the null hypothesis requires that the trace value of the co-integration test to be greater than at least one of the different critical values. Therefore, failing to reject the null hypothesis of no co-integration leads us to conclude that no relationship in the long-term equilibrium between government spending and national income. Co-integrating test in this study are conducted using the method developed by Johansen (1988), and Johansen and Juselius (1990). Many studies used the Engle Granger two-step, but there are those who used a Johansen and Juselius )1990) , for so many advantages, such as first, that tests for all of the variables and, secondly, all variables are treated as internal variables, so that the choice of the variable is not arbitrary. This procedure is the most reliable test for co-integration. To determine whether stochastic trends in series have related to each other or not, we will test for co-integration in Peacock Wiseman version. In addition, after determining the order of integration by Augmented Dickey-Fuller for stationary Unit Root Tests, we test whether the series are co-integrated or not, and if they are, we have to identify the co-integrating long-run equilibrium relationship (Brooks, 2008). In this section, we have to test the Co-integration Test with (Real GDP) and Co-integrati on Test with (Real Non-Oil GDP). 9.5.3.1. Co-integration Test with (Real GDP) In the case of Real GDP for the period during (1980q1 to 1990q2), table (9.9) shows that co-integration relationship were found and the test support the existence of one co-integration equation in the relationship between LGE and LGDP. By looking at the Trace Statistic value in table (9.9), we conclude that we must reject the null hypothesis of no co-integration in of Peacock Wiseman version with, because the Trace Statistic values are greater than the critical values at 5% levels. The existence of co-integration vector has pointed out by trace test since t-test value exceeds critical value in 5% level of significant. This means the co-integration tests are statistically significant at five percent level for determining the long-run relationship between LGE and LGDP. Otherwise, there is long run equilibrium relationship between Real GDP and Government Expenditures has found in Peacock Wiseman version that the trace tests indicates at 5%. At the Trace Statistic value in table (9.9), we can reject the null hypothesis of co-integration in Peacock Wiseman version with respect to real GDP, because the Trace Statistic values are greater than the critical values at 5% levels. Table 9.9: Johansen Co-integration Test results with (Real GDP) from (1980Q1) to (1990Q2) Versions Hypothesized No. of CE(s) Eigen value Trace Statistic (Long Run) Critical Value 5% Prob Peacock Wiseman None 0.51356   33.2534   15.41   0.0000 At most 1 0.08645   3.79   3.76   0.0000 On the other hand , In the case of Real GDP for the period during (1990q3 to 2007q4), table (9.10) shows that co-integration relationship were found and the test support the existence of one co-integration equation in the relationship between LGE and LGDP. By looking at the Trace Statistic value in table (9.9), we conclude that we must reject the null hypothesis of no co-integration in of Peacock Wiseman version with, because the Trace Statistic values are greater than the critical values at 5% levels. The existence of co-integration vector has pointed out by trace test since t-test value exceeds critical value in 5% level of significant. This means the co-integration tests are statistically significant at five percent level for determining the long-run relationship between LGE and LGDP. Otherwise, there is long run equilibrium relationship between Real GDP and Government Expenditures has found in Peacock Wiseman version that the trace tests indicates at 5%. At the Trace Statistic value in table (9.10), we can reject the null hypothesis of co-integration in Peacock Wiseman version with respect to real GDP, because the Trace Statistic values are greater than the critical values at 5% levels. Table 9.10: Johansen Co-integration Test results with (Real GDP) from (1990Q3) to (2007Q4) Versions Hypothesized No. of CE(s) Eigen value Trace Statistic (Long Run) Critical Value 5% Prob Peacock Wiseman None 0.75275   105.5668   15.41   0.0000 At most 1 0.12419 9.1496   3.76   0.0000 9.5.3.2. Co-integration Test with (Real Non-Oil GDP) In the case of Real Non-Oil GDP for the period during (1980q1 to 1990q2), table (9.11) shows that there is long run equilibrium relationship between Real GDP and Government Expenditures has found in Peacock Wiseman version with respect to real non-oil gross GDP at 5% levels . We can reject the null hypothesis of co-integration in Peacock Wiseman version with respect to real non-oil gross GDP table (9.11), because the Trace Statistic values are greater than the critical values at 5% levels. Table 9.11: Johansen Co-integration Test results with (Real Non-Oil GDP) from (1980Q1) to (1990Q2) Versions Hypothesized No. of CE(s) Eigen value Trace Statistic Critical Value 5% Prob Peacock Wiseman None   0.70444   79.2146   15.41   0.0000 At most 1   0.50992   29.2407   3.76   0.0000 On the other hand , In the case of Real Non-Oil GDP for the period during (1990q3 to 2007q4), table (9.12) shows that there is long run equilibrium relationship between Real GDP and Government Expenditures has found in Peacock Wiseman version with respect to real non-oil gross GDP at 5% levels . We can reject the null hypothesis of co-integration in Peacock Wiseman version with respect to real non-oil gross GDP table (9.12), because the Trace Statistic values are greater than the critical values at 5% levels. Table 9.12: Johansen Co-integration Test results with (Real Non-Oil GDP) from (1990Q3) to (2007Q4) Versions Hypothesized No. of CE(s) Eigen value Trace Statistic Critical Value 5% Prob Peacock Wiseman None   0.73329   158.7948   15.41   0.0000 At most 1   0.62460 67.6036   3.76   0.0000 9.5.4. Causality Test: After making sure of the time series model to study the variables that they are not stationary in the level and stationary in the difference, and then check it all-integrated joint, it is clear that there is a long-term equilibrium relationship. According to, Engle and Granger (1987), the variables that integrate common equilibrium reflects a long-term, it should be a representation of Error Correction Model (ECM), which has the potential to test and assess the relationship in the short and long term between the variables of the form, as it avoids  problems arising from the spurious correlation.   To apply the Error Correction Model (ECM) for Peacock Wiseman version in Saudi Arabia, we must employ Granger-causality as follows: In the context of error correction model (ECM) of the variables that are co-integrated. Standard Granger-Causal for the variables that do not co-integrated. 9.5.4.1. Granger Causality Test The Engle and Granger approach have two phases, the first: Assessing the relationship model equilibrium in the long term, called the decline of joint integration.  The second: an assessment error correction model to reflect the relationship in the short term or short-term volatility on the direction of the relationship in the long run, this model is estimated by the introduction of short-term residuum estimated long-term decline in the independent variable Decelerated for a single. In this section we have to test the Granger Causality for Peacock and Wiseman version for real GDP and Non Oil GDP during two periods, firstly from (1980q1) to (1990q2) and from (1990q3) to (2007q4). 9.5.4.1.1. Granger Causality Test from (1980q1) to (1990q2) with Real GDP Table (9.13) shows the probability values from Granger Causality Test for Peacock and Wiseman Version during periods from (1980q1) to (1990q2) with Real GDP. The reported F-statistics are standard test for the joint hypothesis that LGE does not Granger Cause LGDP. In the case of Saudi Arabia, the probability for accepting the Null-Hypothesis was only 0.1% while 99.9% rejecting this hypothesis, which means LGE, cause LGDP by around 99.9% all the time in Peacock and Wisemans Version. In table (9.13) the feedback of causality from LGDP to LGE has presented where the probability for accepting the Null-Hypothesis was, only 2.8% while 97.2% rejecting the hypothesis, which means LGDP cause LGE by about 97.2% all of them in the case of Saudi Arabia. Table 9.13: Granger Causality test for Peacock and Wiseman Version from (1980q1) to (1990q2) with Real GDP Null Hypothesis F-Statistic Prob. LGE does not Granger Cause LGDP 40.212 0.0010 LGDP does not Granger Cause LGE 7.1809 0.0280 The probability values from Granger Causality Test, table (9.14) present the causality test result from (1990q3) to (2007q4) with Real GDP. The reported F-statistics are standard test for the joint hypothesis that LGE does not Granger Cause LGDP. In the case of Saudi Arabia, the probability for accepting the Null-Hypothesis was only (1%) while 99% rejecting this hypothesis, which means LGE, cause LGDP by around 99% all the time in Peacock and Wisemans Version. In table (9.14) the feedback of causality from LGDP to LGE presented where the probability for accepting the Null-Hypothesis was, only 0.1% while 99.9% rejecting the hypothesis, which means LGDP cause LGE by about 99.9% all of them. Table 9.14: Granger Causality test for Peacock and Wiseman Version from (1990q3) to (2007q4) with Real GDP Null Hypothesis F-Statistic Prob. LGE does not Granger Cause LGDP 115.16 0.010 LGDP does not Granger Cause LGE 48.24 0.001 9.5.4.1.2. Granger Causality Test with Real Non-Oil GDP from (1990q3) to (2007q4) The probability values from Granger Causality Test, table (9.15) present the causality test result from (1980q1) to (1990q2) with (Real Non-Oil GDP). The reported F-statistics are standard test for the joint hypothesis that LGE does not Granger Cause LNON_OIL_GDP. In the case of Saudi Arabia, the probability for accepting the Null-Hypothesis was only 41% while 59% rejecting this hypothesis, which means LGE, cause LNON_OIL_GDP by around 59% all the time in Peacock and Wisemans Version. In table (9.15) the feedback of causality from LNON_OIL_GDP to LGE presented where the probability for accepting the Null-Hypothesis was, only 0.1% while 99.9% rejecting the hypothesis, which means LNON_OIL_GDP cause LGE by about 99.9% all of them. Table 9.15: Granger Causality test for Peacock and Wiseman Version from (1980q1) to (1990q2) with (Real Non-Oil GDP) Null Hypothesis F-Statistic Prob. LGE does not Granger Cause LNON_OIL_GDP 1.7821 0.410 LNON_OIL_GDP does not Granger Cause LGE 32.534 0.001 The probability values from Granger Causality Test, table (9.16) present the causality test result from (1990q3) to (2007q4) with (Real Non-Oil GDP). The reported F-statistics are standard test for the joint hypothesis that LGE does not Granger Cause LNON_OIL_GDP. In the case of Saudi Arabia, the probability for accepting the Null-Hypothesis was only 0.9% while 99.1% rejecting this hypothesis, which means LGE, cause LNON_OIL_GDP by around 99.1% all the time in Peacock and Wisemans Version. In table (9.16) the feedback of causality from LNON_OIL_GDP to LGE presented where the probability for accepting the Null-Hypothesis was, only 0.2% while 99.8% rejecting the hypothesis, which means LNON_OIL_GDP cause LGE by about 99.8% all of them. Table 9.16: Granger Causality test for Peacock and Wiseman Version from (1990q3) to (2007q4) with (Real Non-Oil GDP) Null Hypothesis F-Statistic Prob. LGE does not Granger Cause LNON_OIL_GDP 9.5193 0.009 LNON_OIL_GDP does not Granger Cause LGE 40.708 0.002 9.5.4.2. Error Correction Model (ECM) The Error Correction Model (ECM) differs as discussed by Granger (1988) for the number of error correction terms. The concept of error correction is related to co-integration because the co-integration relationship describes the long run equilibrium. If a set of variables are co-integrated, then there exists an error correction model to describe the short run adjustment to equilibrium Engle and Granger (1987). The incidence of mutual co-integration between the variable indicates that the Granger must be Causal in one direction, at least, but the rules of engagement did not refer to the direction of causality between the variables. To verify the rules of engagement we are conducting tests of causation in the context of Error Correction Model (ECM). With regard to periods of lag length, and use the same lag length for Peacock Wiseman version, which we were when we tested for co-integration. In addition, the t-statistics on the coefficients of the lagged error correction term (ECTt-1 (indicate the significance of the long-run causality between the two variables. The statistical significance of the t-statistics is in our tests should be at most 5% level. These analyses regarded as usual analyses of the displacement hypothesis and the hypothesis that the part of national income constant to government expenditure increases with income (Gupta 1967, Diamond 1977, Nomura 1991, 1995). Moreover, Peacock and Wiseman agree with Wagners version of Wagners law. In this section we have to test The Error Correction Model (ECM) for Peacock and Wiseman version for real GDP and Non Oil GDP during two periods, firstly from (1980q1) to (1990q2) and from (1990q3) to (2007q4). 9.5.4.2.1. Error Correction Model (ECM) from (1980q1) to (1990q2) with (real GDP) In the table (9.17), the results from (1980q1) to (1990q2) indicate that there is long-run unidirectional causality that runs from GDP to GE (Peacock Wiseman Version). We draw this conclusion because the sign for GE is positive, and at the same time, the coefficient is statistically significant at the 5%level, Thus, Peacock Wiseman version has found to hold for GDP in the case of Saudi Arabia. Table 9.17: Causality with Error Correction Model (ECM) test from (1980q1) to (1990q2) with (Real GDP) Versions Variables ECTt-1 T-Stat Peacock Wiseman L(GE) 0.0094398 7.69 L(GDP) 0.1036134 1.56 In the table (9.18), the results from (1990q3) to (2007q4) indicate that there is long-run unidirectional causality that runs from GDP to GE (Peacock Wiseman Version). We draw this conclusion because the sign for GE, positive, and at the same time it coefficient is statistically significant at the 5%level, while the signs for GDP is either positive, and/or the coefficient is statistically insignificant at the 5% level. Thus, Peacock Wiseman version has found to hold for GDP in the case of Saudi Arabia. Table 9.18: Causality with Error Correction Model (ECM) test from (1990q3) to (2007q4) with (Real GDP) Versions Variables ECTt-1 T-Stat Peacock Wiseman L(GE) 0.0086968 9.99 LGDP 0.2657211 3.53 9.5.4.2.2. Error Correction Model (ECM) from (1990q3) to (2007q4) with (real Non-Oil GDP) In the table (9.19), the results from (1980q1) to (1990q2) indicate that there is long-run unidirectional causality that runs from Non-Oil-GDP to GE (Peacock Wiseman Version). We draw this conclusion because the sign for GE is positive, and at the same time, the coefficient is statistically significant at the 5%level, Thus, Peacock Wiseman version has found to hold for Non-Oil-GDP in the case of Saudi Arabia. Table 9.19: Causality with Error Correction Model (ECM) test from (1980q1) to (1990q2) with (Real Non-Oil GDP) Versions Variables ECTt-1 T-Stat Peacock Wiseman L(GE) 0.0101674 1.73 L(Non-Oil GDP) 2.316124 6.43 In the table (9.20), the results from (1990q3) to (2007q4) indicate that there is long-run unidirectional causality that runs from Non-Oil-GDP to GE (Peacock Wiseman Version). we draw this conclusion because the sign for GE, is incorrect, negative, and at the same time it coefficient is statistically significant at the 5%level, while the signs for Non-Oil-GDP is either positive, and/or the coefficient is statistically insignificant at the 5% level. Thus, Peacock Wiseman version has found to hold for Non-Oil-GDP in the case of Saudi Arabia. Table 9.20: Causality with Error Correction Model (ECM) test from (1990q3) to (2007q4) with (Real Non-Oil GDP) Versions Variables ECTt-1 T-Stat Peacock Wiseman L(GE) -0.0037897 -3.42 L(Non-Oil GDP) 0.8948453 6.33 9.6. Conclusion According to, (Gupta, 1967) and (Diamond 1977,) argued that the displacement effect led to the share of national income devoted to government expenditures increases with GDP. In this chapter, we examined the relationship between the expenditures and economic growth of Peacock Wiseman version for Saudi Arabia by using time series quarterly data for the periods during (1980Q1 to 1990Q2) and during (1990Q3 to 2007Q4) . It has applied three distinct time series techniques. We have examined the regressions for Peacock Wiseman version by using Ordinary Least Square (OLS) for Real GDP and Non Oil GDP. The displacement literature surveys have shown that the earlier empirical tests of displacement suffer from several methodological compare between the studies has impaired by different choices of periods and data series. The next step is the Unit Root tests by using the Augmented Dickey-Fuller for stationary Unit Root Tests for Real GDP and Non Oil GDP, also we have used Co-integrating test for Real GDP and Non Oil GDP. Finally, Causality tests by using Granger causality tests and Error Correction Model (ECM). First, the regressions for Peacock Wiseman version by using Ordinary Least Square (OLS) for Real GDP and Non Oil GDP, to presents the probability of the equations and to analysis the R-square and DW, for Peacock Wiseman version. Second, The Unit Root tests by using the Augmented Dickey-Fuller for stationary Unit Root Tests for Real GDP and Non Oil GDP. In the case of the levels of the series, the null-hypothesis of non-stationary cannot reject for any of the series. Third, these results suggest that there is a co-integrating relationship between the share of government spending in national output and per capita income. In this situation, if co-integration exists between government expenditure and GDP, then Peacock Wiseman version holds. The equilibrium relationship indicates that the major determinant of government expenditure in Saudi Arabia, in the long run, is national income. Fourth, Granger causality tests have used to confirm the causality direction between the Variables. In the long run we found statistically significant evidence in favour of per capita GDP Granger-causing the share of government Expenditures in GDP, which is consistent with Peacock Wiseman version. The result of causality test indicate that the existence of strong feedback causality for Peacock Wiseman version in the long run. On the other hand, by using Error Correction Model (ECM), the concept of error correction, this has related to co-integration because the co-integration relationship describes the long run equilibrium. If a set of variables are co-integrated, then there exists an error correction model to describe the short run adjustment to equilibrium. Overall studies with the exception of Pryor (1968), the time dimension has completely suppressed, despite the fact that the Peacock and Wiseman hypothesis purports to explain the development of government expenditure over time.

Kohlberg s Stages Of Moral Development - 815 Words

For this week’s assignment in our complete section, students were asked to identify two immediate family members that vastly differ in age. We were asked to compare and contrast the moral developments of each. For this exercise, I have chosen to compare and contrast my thirteen year old autistic son, Matthew and my late grandfather, Merritt Cole who was 84 years old. Before delving into the subject matter, I feel compelled to provide background information on the stages of moral development according to esteemed psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg. According to Williams and Arrigo (2008), Kohlberg suggested that morality and moral reasoning proceed through a series of stages, more specifically, three levels with two stages in each. It is believed that people progress through these stages at various points in their life, with and without influences through everyday social interactions. Critics of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development felt as is Kohlberg’s stages were specifically developed for men and did not include women. One such critic was Carol Gilligan. Gilligan stated â€Å"that both men and women use two judgements from time to time which are ethic of care and ethic of justice (Cam,Cavdar, Cok Seydoogullari, 2012, p.1223). Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development are (Williams Arrigo, 2008, p. 123): Level 1: Preconventional Morality Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Stage 2: Instrumental Purpose and ExchangeShow MoreRelatedKohlberg s Stages Of Moral Development Essay1280 Words   |  6 PagesStephen Lavely 4-21-16 Col-299 Jacqueline Gray Reflection Essay I personally identify with many aspects of these papers. In Kohlberg s Stages of Moral Development, specifically in Stage 6, I identify with basing my principles and moral values on â€Å"equality and worth of all living things (Kohlberg)†.I definitely think all individuals are valuable and are of equal importance and deserve their individual liberties. As a whole, if a the liberty of each person isn t taken into consideration, itRead MoreKohlberg s Stages Of Moral Development2136 Words   |  9 PagesKohlberg’s stages of moral development were based on a moral philosopher by the name of Lawrence Kohlberg. His main interest was to observe children during growth to develop and conclude which stages they best fit into. After observing both adults and children, he concluded that, â€Å"Human beings progress consecutively from one stage to the next in an invariant sequence† (â€Å"Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development†). All of the 6 stages he create d, represent the morality in which a child or adult can beRead MoreKohlberg s Six Stages Of Moral Development1987 Words   |  8 PagesExam One 1. a. Kohlberg’s six stages of moral development are complex yet very applicable ideas to moral development. The whole point of his six stages is to set the foundation for one’s ethical behavior with a psychological approach. The first stage of moral development is the â€Å"punishment/ obedience orientation†, which refers to how people will only focus on the consequences of certain actions. For example, when a student in elementary school brings a toy weapon to school after being told notRead MoreKohlberg s Six Stages Of Moral Development1575 Words   |  7 Pagessix stages of moral development can be applied to corporations. Corporations are made up of individuals, and the corporate culture can contribute to an individual’s moral decision making. Mintz tells us that â€Å"an individual’s moral development can be influenced by corporate culture, especially ethics training.† (p. 58) Since the corporate culture can so heavily influence in dividual ethical decision making, the stage of moral development of the corporation is important. An example of Stage 2 preconventionalRead MoreThe Six Stages Of Kohlberg s Moral Development2377 Words   |  10 PagesEXAM – 1 BUS 522 – Dr. S. Jasso APU Summer 2016 1. MORAL DEVELOPMENT a. The six stages of Kohlberg’s moral development: Level I. Preconventional Morality †¢ STAGE 1: Punishment and Obedience – Right and wrong is determined by rewards and punishment. Our behavior is motivated by fear of being punished;; an example of this would be that most people will not steal for fear of being punished (i.e. going to jail). †¢ STAGE 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation - aka – looking out for number oneRead MoreKohlberg s Theory Of Moral Development And Fowler s Stages Of Faith Development852 Words   |  4 Pagesso basic to human development that we sometimes overlook its importance.† (Macionis, Pg. 84) Both Lawrence Kohlberg and James Fowler developed theories on how people develop in stages. Both Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development and Fowler’s Stages of Faith Development contain 6 stages that people are believed to go through as they develop. Kohlberg’s theory is related to how people develop a sense of what is right and wrong. It was influenced by the work of Jean Piaget, on moral reasoning. He classifiesRead MorePiaget s Theory Of Cognitive Development And Kohlberg s Stages Of Moral Development1439 Words   |  6 PagesThe two life stages that I focused on are: Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development and Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development. According to psychologist Jean Piaget, kids progress through a progression of four basis phases of cognitive advancement. Every stage is stamped by the movements in how children comprehend the world. Following his perceptions, he reasoned that children were not less intelligent than adults, they simply think in an unexpected way. Through his perceptions of his kids, PiagetRead MoreKohlberg : Theory Of Moral Development997 Words   |  4 PagesLawrence Kohlberg: Theory of Moral Development Lawrence Kohlberg was a well known psychologist best known for his thorough research into the development and better understanding of the processes needed to grow into a well developed human being. Kohlberg grew up in New York City on October 25, 1927. Growing up in such a diverse area is what struck his interest in the development of all beings. In only one short year he received his bachelors degree and then went on to devote his career to study theRead MoreMoral Development : What Are Morals And How Are They Developed? Essay898 Words   |  4 PagesMoral Development: Jimmy What are morals and how are they developed? The word moral has many definitions to define its meaning. In this case the proper definition to define moral would be â€Å"of or relating to principles of right and wrong in behavior† (Moral, n.d.). This definition is pertaining to one’s judgment. Kohlberg is the psychologist who developed a theory on moral development. He used ideas from Piaget and developed his own theory. His theory will be discussed throughout this easy, whileRead MoreKohlberg s Theory Of Moral Development And Moral Maturity Essay1305 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction: Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987) is the pioneer of the theory of stages of moral development and participated actively in the development of the fields of moral psychology and moral education. Kohlberg was especially inspired by Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist who created the theory of cognitive development. Mark Baldwin, John Dewey, and George Herbert Mead also influenced his thinking (Barger, 2000; Encyclopedia of Education, 2002). In this paper, I will analyze in-depth Kohlberg’s

Accounting Standard & Regulations for ASX Firm - myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theAccounting Standard Regulations for ASX Listed Firms. Answer: Introduction The present report presents the major accounting issues need to be considered by Myer Holdings Ltd, an ASX listed firm in the development of its general purpose financial report. The major area of the concern in this context is to develop a report for the CFO as an accounting graduate of the company for consideration of impairment of assets. The AASB 136 standard represents amendment in the current reporting standard regarding assets impairment that applies to annual reporting periods beginning on or after 1 July 2009 but before 1 January 2010. The reduce disclosure requirements as per the AASB 136 requires business corporations to ensure that its assets are not carried at more than its recoverable amount (Bond, Govendir and Wells, 2016). The report has addressed the processes, information and flexibility required by businesses for determining asset impairments with reference to Myer. Outlining the Evidence Determining the Necessity of Impairment Testing of Assets In Relation to Myer The AASB 136 amendment adopts IAS 36 impairment of assets standard as developed by the IASB. As analyzed from the data flow of the company, the evidence gathered in relation to necessity for asset impairment is as follows: Asset Flow: It can be stated from the data analysis of the company that asset amount in all its stores is either uniform or has demonstrated an increasing trend. It has been observed that none asset presents a declining trend over the last financial year in all its stores and therefore there is no signal of asset impairment. Asset Amount: it has been analyzed from the asset base that its net assets have not undergone major changes and all are contributing equally towards its overall assets indicating no asset impairment. Turnover of Assets: As analyzed from the financial figures of asset turnover ratio of the company, there is no asset impairment as the ratio is relatively same over the past few years (Myer Holdings Limited 2016 Annual Report, 2016). Outlining the processes required to be addressed in determining any asset impairments by Myer The goodwill recognized by the company on acquiring Myer business amounts to $349.5 million have been allocated to each of the cash generating units of the group as depicted from its consolidated financial statements. As per the AASB 136 Impairment of Assets standard, the goodwill and intangible assets with unpredictable useful life of a business entity need to be tested on an annual basis for impairment. The asset impairment for these assets has been tested by the Group through the adoption of use discounted cash flow model. This model is based on using the cash flow estimates of the group for the five year term. The cash flows generated beyond the period of five years are extrapolated through the use of a terminal growth rate. The model is based on utilizing the following assumptions: Discount or pre-tax rate at 14.4% Terminal growth rate at 2.5% Gross operating profit margin at 39.5% The management on the basis of the model has tested the asset impairment if any exists. The management has concluded that increase in the value of future cash flows over the net carrying values of assets of CGUs there is no alteration in the key assumptions adopted. As such, there is no possible reason for carrying value of CGU to exceed from the asset recoverable amount. The review of net carrying value of asset in the group store was carried out for identifying the asset impairment. The recoverable amount of assets in stores was estimated through discounted cash flow model and the major assumptions were found to be in consistency with those mentioned above. Thus, on the basis of sensitivity analysis of the key assumptions, it can be said that there is no asset impairment at Myers stores (Myer Holdings Limited 2016 Annual Report, 2016). Information required in determining asset impairments The IAS 36 accounting standard is developed for carrying out impairment testing of all tangible and intangible assets. As per the standard, all assets need to test that they are within the impairments scope when there is indication of any impairment. The impairment testing of goodwill and intangible assets need to be carried about annually (Hussey, 2010). The major information needed for determination of asset impairments by Myer Holdings can be depicted through the following diagram: The information required by the Group on the basis of above diagram can be described as follows: The asset impairment test is initiated through estimating its recoverable amount or of the CGU whenever there is any indication that a particular asset is impaired The recoverable amount of goodwill and intangible assets with unpredictable useful lives need to be assessed annually without considering the fact there is an indication of impairment or not In the case of identification of an exceed in the carrying amount of asset over the recoverable amount, the particular asset or CGU is impaired The recoverable amount if an asset can be regarded as the value in use of a particular asset. The value in use is the present value of expected future cash flows to be realized from an asset or a CGU (Collings, 2015). In determining the profit or loss of an asset carried out at cost, the impaired loss is estimated to be expenditure. In the event of impaired asset to be a revalued asset, the loss of impairment is recognized against the previous revaluation gains as directed by the IAS 38 Intangible assets (Zhuang, 2016). The Group is required to provide appropriate disclosure regarding the impairment test and losses realized from impairment. The loss arising from asset impairment in the condition of its previous recognition should be reversed if there is change in estimates on the basis of its recoverable amount was determined. However, this condition is not applicable to goodwill (Impairment accounting the basics of IAS 36 Impairment of Assets, 2011). Evaluating the flexibility management available in the determination of asset impairments The Myer Holdings Ltd has adequately followed and adopted AASB 136 standard for determine the asset impairment as annoyed from its annual report. The Group has carried out the asset impairment test through the use of appropriate technique and models. The management annually reviews the carrying value if assets and level of future cash flows for identifying the existence of any impaired asset for each of its CGUs. The management incorporates the use of discounted cash flow model for estimating the asset recoverable amount in the condition of identification of any indication regarding the asset impairment. The management undertakes the sensitivity analysis of the key assumptions used in the model for identifying whether the asset impairment ahs occurred or not. Also, it the asset does not generate cash inflows, its recoverable amount is determined for the CGU to which it belongs by the management. Thus, it can be stated that management of Myer is very flexible in incorporating the requ ired methods and procedures for carrying out asset impairment test (Everingham and Kana, 2008). Conclusion Thus, it can be stated from the overall analysis of asset impairment test of Myer Holdings Ltd that impairment of assets is an not a major issue requiring to be address for the firm in the currents scenario. However, the firm is required to conduct asset impairment test at regular intervals for identifying whether there is an impaired asset. References Bond, D., Govendir, B. and Wells, P., 2016. An evaluation of asset impairments by Australian firms and whether they were impacted by AASB 136. Accounting Finance 56(1), pp.259-288. Collings, S. 2015. Interpretation and Application of UK GAAP: For Accounting Periods Commencing On or After 1 January 2015. John Wiley Sons. Everingham, G. and Kana, S. 2008. Corporate Reporting: 8th Edition. Juta and Company Ltd. Hussey, R. 2010. Fundamentals of International Financial Accounting and Reporting. World Scientific Publishing Company. Impairment accounting the basics of IAS 36 Impairment of Assets. 2011. [Online]. Available at: https://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/Impairment_accounting_the_basics_of_IAS_36_Impairment_of_Assets/$FILE/Impairment_accounting_IAS_36.pdf [Accessed on: 26 August, 2017]. Myer Holdings Limited 2016 Annual Report. 2016. [Online]. Available at: https://investor.myer.com.au/FormBuilder/_Resource/_module/dGngnzELxUikQxL5gb1cgA/file/Myer_Annual_Report_2016.pdf [Accessed on: 26 August, 2017]. Zhuang, Z., 2016. Discussion of An evaluation of asset impairments by Australian firms and whether they were impacted by AASB 136. Accounting Finance 56(1), pp.289-294.